What is a second?

A second is a fundamental unit of time. It was originally defined as a fraction of a day. However, that definition was based on Earth's rotation, which can change with irregularities in Earth's rotation speed. For scientific timekeeping, the International System of Units (SI) adopted a new definition based on the atomic vibrations of cesium atoms. One second is now defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the cesium-133 atom.

The Evolution of Clocks

Clocks have been used for thousands of years. Long ago, sundials were invented to track the motion of the sun's shadow. Grandfather clocks use a pendulum with a carefully calculated weight to ensure a specific oscillation period. Now, atomic clocks can measure time to within a few nanoseconds. At this level of precision, they maintain accuracy to about one second every several million years.

What are atomic clocks?

Atomic clocks are very precise timekeeping devices that rely on the vibrations or oscillations of atoms to measure time. These clocks are widely regarded as the most accurate timekeeping instruments available and serve as the foundation for international time standards. There are different types of atomic clocks, including cesium atomic clocks, rubidium atomic clocks, and hydrogen maser clocks, each based on different atomic elements and technologies. Atomic clocks are used in global positioning systems and telecommunications.

Types of Atomic Clocks

Cesium atomic clocks are the most common type of atomic clock. They are based on the vibrations of cesium atoms. Cesium atomic clocks are so accurate that they can measure time to within a few nanoseconds.

Rubidium atomic clocks use rubidium atoms as their timekeeping reference. They are slightly less accurate than cesium atomic clocks but still very precise. They can typically maintain accuracy within a few microseconds over the course of a year.

Hydrogen maser clocks are even more accurate than cesium atomic clocks. They use hydrogen atoms and maser (microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) technology to achieve astounding precision. These clocks can maintain accuracy to within a few picoseconds (trillionths of a second) over the span of a year.

Applications of Atomic Clocks

Time Standards: Atomic clocks, especially cesium and hydrogen maser clocks, serve as the foundation for international time standards. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is based on a combination of atomic clocks from around the world. UTC is used as a reference for global timekeeping and is used in various applications, including satellite navigation systems (such as GPS) and telecommunications. Atomic clocks have also been used to test aspects of Einstein's theory of relativity and investigate phenomena like time dilation.

What is time dilation?

Time dilation states that time isn't absolute, but rather relative to an observer's motion and gravitational field. This has been experimentally confirmed and has profound implications in our understanding of the universe.

What is the difference between UTC and GMT?

GMT was originally based on the mean solar time at the Prime Meridian, which runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England. It was traditionally the standard time at the Prime Meridian, and it didn't account for variations in the Earth's rotation.

UTC is a modern and highly precise time standard. It was introduced to account for irregularities in the Earth's rotation. UTC is based on highly accurate atomic clocks and is adjusted periodically to keep it within 0.9 seconds of mean solar time (UT1). This adjustment is made by occasionally adding leap seconds, which GMT does not incorporate.

UTC is recognized as the global standard for timekeeping and used for activities like global navigation and satellite communication. GMT is historically significant but is less commonly used in formal contexts.

Colloquial Usages: people often use "GMT" and "UTC" interchangeably when referring to time zones that are the same or nearly the same. However, "UTC" is the more accurate and up-to-date term for modern timekeeping. GMT is often used colloquially to refer to the time zone at the Prime Meridian (UTC+0). However, time zones around the world are defined in relation to UTC, not GMT. UTC is the basis for the time offsets of different time zones, including UTC+1, UTC-5, etc.

Types of Clocks

Quartz Clocks: Most modern analog clocks, like wall clocks and wristwatches, use a quartz crystal as their timekeeping element. Quartz clocks operate based on the piezoelectric properties of quartz crystals. When an electric current is applied to the crystal, it vibrates at a precise frequency. These vibrations are counted and used to measure time. A circuit called an oscillator divides the vibrations into regular intervals, driving the clock's hands.

Atomic Clocks: Atomic clocks are the most precise timekeeping devices. They use the vibrations of atoms (typically cesium or rubidium) to measure time. The transition between specific energy levels in the atoms is incredibly consistent, allowing atomic clocks to provide extremely accurate timekeeping.

Digital Clocks: Digital clocks display time using numeric digits. They often rely on quartz crystal oscillators and microprocessors to convert the crystal's vibrations into a digital display.

Radio-Controlled Clocks: Some modern clocks, often digital ones, are radio-controlled. They receive time signals from dedicated transmitters, such as those operated by national timekeeping organizations. These clocks automatically adjust their time to remain extremely accurate.

Computer Clocks: Computers and electronic devices often have internal clocks that rely on oscillators and are regularly synchronized with precise time standards via the internet.

How do analog clocks work?

Analog clocks work by using gears and hands to show the time on a clock face. A continuous energy source, like a battery or a winding spring, powers the clock. Gears transfer this energy to the clock's hands, which move around a clock face divided into hours and minutes. Some clocks have a pendulum that swings, producing a ticking sound. The clock hands show the current hour and minute. This traditional method of timekeeping has been used for centuries and is still popular for its classic design.

When was the analog clock invented?

The first analog clock, known as the "water clock" or "clepsydra," was invented by the ancient Egyptians around 1500 BCE. It used the flow of water from one container to another to measure time. The earliest mechanical clocks resembling modern analog clocks appeared in Europe during the 14th century. Some early examples include the Salisbury Cathedral clock (1386) and the Wells Cathedral clock (1390). These clocks had no minute hands and were primarily used in churches to ring bells for religious purposes.

When was the digital clock invented?

The first digital clock as we know it today was created in the 1960s. The most famous early digital clock is the Model 801 designed by electrical engineer James L. Buie and produced by the company Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in 1961. This clock used flip-flop digital circuits to display the time in hours, minutes, and seconds.

What are time zones?

The Earth is divided into time zones, each roughly 15 degrees of longitude apart. 360 degrees of longitude are divided into 24 approximate zones, leaving 1 per hour in the day. This division helps maintain a synchronized global time system, allowing people to coordinate and schedule with each other worldwide. Here's an interesting video on time zones: https://youtu.be/NBDaLK6EjwI?si=nVrYQP8YBPSp1WY2

How many time zones are there?

There are 24 time zones each defined by being 1 hour off of UTC, but some time zones are offset by 15, 30, or 45 minutes from the nearest primary timezone. Currently, there are 37 time zones. There are hundreds of official timezones: https://www.timeanddate.com/time/zones/.

What is a leap second?

To account for the gradual slowing of the Earth's rotation, leap seconds are occasionally added to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). These extra seconds align our timekeeping systems with Earth's variable rotation speed. This means that atomic time and solar time remain in sync. When a leap second is introduced, UTC effectively pauses for one second. GMT does not use leap seconds.

What are 12 and 24 hour time formats?

Different cultures and regions use different time formats. Most commonly, there are the 12-hour clock (with AM and PM indicators) and the 24-hour clock. Most countries use 24 hour time, but some countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, and Ireland use the 12-hour clock, and some countries such as India, South Africa, and Singapore use both the 12-hour and 24-hour clock systems.

What do AM and PM stand for?

"AM" stands for "Ante Meridiem," which means "before midday" or "before noon." It refers to the time from midnight (12:00 AM) up to just before noon (11:59 AM). "PM" stands for "Post Meridiem," which means "after midday" or "afternoon." It represents the time from noon (12:00 PM) until just before midnight (11:59 PM).

What is Unix time?

Unix time, also known as Epoch time, is a system for tracking and representing time in computing. It is a way to express the current time as the number of seconds that have elapsed since 00:00:00 UTC on January 1, 1970, excluding leap seconds. This timestamp format is widely used in programming, databases, and operating systems for simplicity and ease of calculation. It provides a standardized method for handling dates and times across different platforms. Sometimes, timestamps are in milliseconds (rather than seconds), such as timestamps in JavaScript. You can obtain the current timestamp by using new Date().getTime().

When is the end of unix time?

Unix time uses a 32-bit signed integer to store the number of seconds since Jan 1, 1970. The maximum representable date is 03:14:07 UTC on Jan 19, 2038. This is often referred to as the "Year 2038 problem" or the "Unix Y2K38 problem." After this time, unix time will overflow, which may cause errors and crash systems that rely on this time format. Many systems are transitioning to 64-bit time representations to extend the range. If you're worried about when 64-bit time will run out, don't. It will cover another 292 billion years (for reference, the age of the universe is estimated to be around 13.8 billion years). 16-bit time would last for a little over 9 hours. Each additional bit doubles the amount of seconds you can store.

What is the difference between a solar day and a sidereal day?

The solar day is the time it takes for the Earth to complete one full rotation on its axis relative to the Sun. It's about 24 hours and is what we commonly refer to as a day. This period is marked by the Sun reaching its highest point in the sky (noon) to the next occurrence of noon. On the other hand, the sidereal day is based on the Earth's rotation relative to distant stars. It takes approximately 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds for a specific star (usually not the Sun) to return to the same position in the sky. The slight difference in duration compared to a solar day is because, during that 24-hour period, the Earth not only spins on its axis but also orbits the Sun. In short, a solar day is relative to an Earth observer and a sidereal day is relative to an external observer. Check out this Veritasium video for more: https://youtu.be/FUHkTs-Ipfg?si=EYI69P1pj0BneiFo

What is a geosynchronous orbit?

A geosynchronous orbit is when a satellite orbits the Earth at the same rate as the planet's rotation, making it appear stationary relative to a fixed point on the Earth's surface. These satellites are positioned directly above the equator at an altitude of approximately 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles) and are commonly used for communication and weather monitoring due to their ability to provide continuous coverage of specific areas. See more in this minutephysics video: https://youtu.be/tI8OqpkOVzs?si=FbbQqqqPSFEo5LrO

What is a solar eclipse?

A solar eclipse happens when the Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun, blocking sunlight. This creates a shadow on Earth, and there are two types: total (full blockage) and partial (partial blockage) solar eclipses. Check out this minutephysics video on solar eclipses: https://youtu.be/W7mVQ3kRPv8?si=eJ4LLVViNEO5axp2

What is a lunar eclipse?

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, causing the Earth's shadow to be cast on the Moon. This celestial alignment leads to the temporary darkening or reddening of the Moon, depending on the Earth's atmosphere. Lunar eclipses can be total, partial, or penumbral, depending on the extent of the Earth's shadow covering the Moon.